Essay On Differences Of The 1950s And 1950s - 761 Words

During the 1950s and 1970s, developments in standards and social rights cleared the United States. These decades consisted of numerous riots, boycotts, court hearings, and the planning of other significant tasks to overcome the problems in America. Despite, the white majoritys disapproval the battles between the balance in training, housing, and employment were issues for minorities. There were achievements made in both decades of America during the 1950s and 1970s. The struggles with war and political drama, and equality remains similar; while they differ within relationship roles between men and women, the similarities abundantly override the differences. First, I will reveal why war and political drama of America were similar in the†¦show more content†¦Similarly, the working-class and the middle-class white citizens viewed coddling poor people and black people at taxpayers expense, as sickening in the 1970s. The interpretations displayed by the working and the middle-class caused the individuals to form a group known as, the silent majority. The silent majority swept Nixon in office in 1968 because he favored the interest of the middle-class (The 1970s. History.com, 2010). Consequently, the behavior of President Nixon undermined peoples faith in the Federal government; correspondingly, restates the problems of equality and the continued topic that yet resolved. Thirdly, relationship roles between men and women started to differ within the baby boomers of the 1950s and the liberality of love of the people in the 1970s. The baby boom and the suburban boom proceeded World War II in the 1950s after Americans, and returning soldiers were eager to procreate; whereas, gays and lesbians fought for their rights to unite in recognizable relationships during the 1970s. Fertility Valley, a given nickname of a residential development often viewed as perfect for young families during the baby-boom (The 1950s. History.com, 2010), the 1970s based itself on liberation with wife swapping parties and the increase in gay andShow MoreRelatedPleasantville Essay1690 Words   |  7 PagesPleasantville Essay A lot can happen in sixty years, and America is no exception to that statement. It is arguable that one of the biggest differences regarding America in the 1950s to modern America is culture. The movie â€Å"Pleasantville† reflects much of these cultural differences from 1950s to today in a creative and thoughtful way. It also provides much useful insight into the cultural conflicts America faced throughout the 1950s. The many differences between 1950s culture and modern day cultureRead More Analysis of A Raisin in the Sun Essay1267 Words   |  6 Pagessocial issues of the 1950s. Swirling portions of humor, disgrace, pride, and sadness into a smooth blend, the play developed many twists and turns that kept the audience and myself completely alert. Throughout the three acts I could feel the audience, as well as myself, totally devoting themselves to the play. But after taking a step back, the play proved to produce much more than tears, gasps, and laughter; it created a new perspective of African American lifestyles in the 1950s. When my fatherRead MoreSimilarities And Differences Between The 1920s And 1950s908 Words   |  4 Pagespeople traveled. Many may say an era like the 1950’s were highly comparable. Race related issues were on a decline as America as whole sought to be more accepting and the oppressed started to speak out on it. While some may argue that the 1920’s and the 1950’s were similar time periods, you can say they were different due to how the way minority ethnic groups were treated and the new consumerist lifestyles of people in the 1950’s. I believe that the 1950’s were more different than similar in regardsRead More1950s Vs 1950s Essay753 Words   |  4 PagesIf you compare the 1950’s to today you might say it is very different things like segregation, economy and family dynamic have altered. And yes many things have changed throughout the decades but not everything is as equal as you might think it would be. This paper will focus on the comparis ons and differences of today vs the 1950’s. Just to list a few the family dynamic and the economy of today has altered juristically compared to the prosperous 1950’s. For families of today Nytimes.com statesRead MoreAnalysis Of Grease By Robert Stigwood And Allen Carr And Directed By Rundel Kleiser1350 Words   |  6 Pagesis a classic American film that takes place in the 1950s and explores ideas of gender and sexuality. The film was produced in 1978 by Robert Stigwood and Allen Carr and was directed by Rundel Kleiser. The film was not set in the 1970s because it would have to tell a different story; in the 1970s there was birth control and an abundance of sexual liberation, unlike the 1950s. The producers were able to connect the concepts of events from the 1950s into the film. Grease explores the ideas of genderRead More1950s vs Today Essay680 Words   |  3 PagesThroughout history the roles of women have changed dramatically. Since the 1950’s, women have slowly but surely evolved into the individuals one sees today in public offices, law firms or even the five o’ clock news. However, this evolution did not occur over night. Although women in the 1950’s and today have dealt with similar stereotypes, today life has greatly improved because women aren’t as pressured to get married, are taken more seriously in the business world, and are even making as muchRead MoreThe Male Gender as a Performance in Beer Advertisements Essay812 Words   |  4 PagesTheir essay, â€Å"The Male Consumer as a Loser: Beer and Liquor Ads in Mega Sports Media Events,† goes on to list the reasons for their insecurities: historic and cultural shifts such as deindustrialization, declining real value of wages, feminists and sexual minorities. They support their main point by providing a window to the past as beer ads of the 1950s depicted a desirable lifestyle that was appropriate for post war style of living. By following the transitions of beer ads from the 1950s to nowRead MoreImp ortant Changes in the Political, Social and Economic Life in the UK1314 Words   |  6 Pagesthe resulting ordering of our lives in terms of family, work and welfare together with the resulting impact on our health. Within the themes of structure and agency, uncertainty and diversity together with knowledge and knowing, this essay explores the consequences of some of these changes and how they may be beneficial for some and deletarious for others, depending upon which social category a person falls into. One of the consequences of these changes is that weRead MoreAp Exam Essays1660 Words   |  7 PagesAP Exam Essays 2001-2010 2010 AP Exam Essays 1. In what ways did ideas and values held by Puritans influence the political, economic, and social development of the New England colonies from 1630 through the 1660s? 2. Analyze the political, diplomatic, and military reasons for the United States victory in the Revolutionary War. Confine your answer to the period 1775–1783. 3. Analyze the ways in which controversy over the extension of slavery into western territories contributed to the comingRead MoreIdentity : Social Identity And Self Identity Essay1640 Words   |  7 Pagesindividual is, where they came from and their social status within the society. Gender is an important aspect of our social identity as it helps people to conform into a contributing member of society. Unlike sex, which refers to people’s biological differences of being female or male, gender is socially constructed; it is a set of social expectations of how people should act based on their sex (O’shaughnessy Stadler, 2012, p370). Advertising plays an important role in constructing ideologies and social

Thesis Domestic Violence and Credible Source - 1677 Words

Thesis Statement Studies have shown that an increasing trend of domestic violence is being perpetrated in heterosexual households. Many of these cases involve the male abusing the female, and the female actively attempting to maintain an outward appearance of normalcy despite the silent suffering. This outward image is nothing but a cover to maintain an illusion to the world that everything is good in the relationship, and also in many cases for fear of further abuse for drawing attention to the issue. As a result a closed loop of suffering, pain, and violence is created. Annotated Bibliography What is Domestic Violence? (August, 2014) The United States Department of Justice. http://www.justice.gov/ovw/domestic-violence The U.S.†¦show more content†¦This site not only discusses the violence women endure, but also the effects it has on them, the families, and specifically the children. The chart on the website shows the continual cycle that many women face with the abusive partner and how it repeats. This source gains credibility from the work done by the Oakland County Council Against Domestic Violence. This website provides information into the specifics of how males will manipulate a female partner into a situation they are or feel, trapped in. Myths and Facts about Domestic Violence (2014). Retrieved August 13, 2014, from http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/domviol/myths.htm This site is a information portal provided by the prosecuting attorney in Clark County, Indiana. This site dives into many of the myths associated with domestic violence. Highlighting that males can be the victim in domestic abuse, but that statistics show the female is most often the one whom is the victim. This is a credible source as it’s written by a prosecutor whom sees these cases on a regular basis and is able to get the facts of the case. This source gives credibility to the thesis statement by bolstering the fact that many women feel trapped by various means. Herman, J. (2002). Trauma Recovery: The aftermath of violence from domestic abuse to political terror. This is a non-fiction workShow MoreRelatedRhetorical Analysis (Domestic Violence) Essay example1326 Words   |  6 Pagesaccused of domestic violence. In the past these accusations have seemingly gone unnoticed as the player gets punished behind the scenes and continues playing the game we love to watch. However, now as the league is taking the horrific issue of domestic violence far more seriously we are starting to see just how prevalent it is in the NFL. While this is a significant step in creating more awareness for the issues of domestic violence, Rex W. 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Evaluation of Clustering Algorithms

Question: Discuss about the Evaluation of Clustering Algorithms. Answer: Introduction The following study incorporates a discussion on the needs of corporate for approaches other than the financial statements to predict the bankruptcy prediction. Use of financial statements has been a primary instrument to predict the bankruptcy probability but in recent years, financial statements are not considered as reliable source to estimate the bankruptcy risk due to several corporate scandals. According to the principles of accounting framework, financial statements are required to be presented by the companies to evaluate the financial performance and position for the use of stakeholders. However, in the present years, it has been noted that several companies prepare and present financial statements that provides misleading information and unfair result on financial performance. Accordingly, the source of financial statements could not be considered as reliable one to evaluate the companys true financial position. Hence, the present assignment involves evaluation of reliable approaches to analyze the bankruptcy prediction for the business organizations. Prediction of bankruptcy is an art to measure and predict the financial distress of the companies that consists of financial research as well as accounting research. In order to predict the probability of bankruptcy, it is essential to evaluate the value of creditors as well as investors since the factors involve the amounts due to be paid by the companies. Accordingly, financial statement has been a primary tool used to analyze the financial position of the companies together with the amount of loans, borrowings and liabilities as well as the duration of loan payments due (Sun et al. 2014). Moreover, it is important to provide true and material information in the financial statement about the financial transactions and other relevant information so that the correct financial position can be determined. On the contrary, several companies fail to comply the regulations of accounting principles and represent fraud and erroneous financial information that does not present true financial position (Yu et al. 2014). Altman et al. (2014) stated that due to several corporate scandals that involved large amount of conspiracy presented material misstatements and erroneous information in the financial statements hence; financial statements cannot be considered as a reliable source. In case of Lehman Brothers, the organizational collapse occurred due to erroneous and fraud valuation presented in the statement of financial position with respect to the valuation of assets, which was over $600 billion (Gambacorta and Mistrulli 2014). One of the significant instruments has been financial ratio analysis to predict the probability of organizational bankruptcy that incorporates the ratio on financial leverage, liquidity as well as profitability (Kou, Peng and Wang 2014). However, the analysis of financial ratio component also depends on the information presented in the financial statement hence reflect unreliable result if the income statement or balance sheet is not correctly reported. Collapse of Bear Sterns is another investment bank, which failed during the year of financial crisis while the large amount loss and the financial statement did not reflect appropriate information of the illiquid assets. Accordingly, the prediction of bankruptcy probability cannot be reliably measured by analyzing financial statements of the company (Iturriaga and Sanz 2015). Accordingly, there are certain approaches that can be used by the companies other than the financial statement analysis that provides reliable results to identify the corporate defaults and the financial status. The financial status of the company can be identified by option valuation method, which involves variability of the stock price and determines the volatility as well as fair pricing of the companys shares in the current market scenario (Gambacorta and Mistrulli 2014). This approach is assists in identifying the correct pricing structure of the companys stock and underlying assets by monitoring the potential risk associated with the underlying stock price, interest rates and dividend value. However, Steele (2014) contended that the approach of option value incorporates several assumptions and forecasts to determine the value of implied volatility and market risks which may not predict accurate theoretical vale of the shares at a given point of time. Statistical techniques is an approach that predicts the financial distress of the company that associates with the matrix related to unique co- variance for each class of data by using the co- variance matrix (Abelln and Mantas 2014). This approach includes assessment of financial distress by using small sample size to evaluate the existing problems of the company related to the internal controls and valuation of resources. On the contrary, Lee and Choi (2013) stated that statistical approach is applied on the basis of inherent assumptions on linearity or independence which could not reflect the appropriate result for the bankruptcy prediction. Bankruptcy prediction is essential to measure the companys ability to repay the liabilities and loans together with the evaluation of potential risks return trade off from the investments. Therefore, organizations are required to apply the most reliable and efficient approach to determine the financial distress free from all material misstatem ents and errors (Iturriaga and Sanz 2015). It has been observed that collapse of Lehman Brothers occurred due to fraud and erroneous financial information incorporated by the company, which was not identified by the independent auditors. As a result, money lenders, investors and other financial institutions could not evaluate the actual financial position as the organization presented overvalued assets and indebted on huge amount of loans hence filed for bankruptcy due to default in payments (Kou, Peng and Wang 2014). Therefore, other than financial statements analysis, approach of intelligent technique can be used by the corporates to measure the true and transparent financial position of the business. Intelligent technique incorporates elements of decisions trees to determine the significant area, which solves the problems of classification (Wang, Ma and Yang 2014). Decision tree is an analysis, which consists of developed algorithms and reflects accurate results from identified samples. The system is used by using several applications in service of finance to evaluate the level of bankruptcy based on the organizational actual performance. Use of intelligent technique provides improved and accurate information on the level of companys finances based on its capacity, which detects the companys efficiency to generate the profitability and cash flow to maintain the business liquidity (Serrano-Cinca and GutiRrez-Nieto 2013). Several organizations use independent variable, which is strongly associate d with the dependent variable based on a specific criterion so that the correct level of financial distress is obtained. In addition, this approach use the index based on gain- ratio which is a method used to measure the financial attributes in different segments of the business organizations hence the obtained result considers less impact from the segmentation downside. While analyzing the sample size in different segments, various trials are considered and in each of the trial segment, new decision tree is been assembled which provides accurate result of bankruptcy prediction of the companies (Delen, Kuzey and Uyar 2013). Therefore, the companies are required to consider intelligent approach to measure the bankruptcy prediction other than the analysis of financial statements which can be manipulated and reflect misstated information on financial performance and position. Conclusion In view of the above discussion, it can be said the prediction of financial position is essential for the purpose of investment, lending loans and advances as well as business deals in credit policy. It has been observed that financial statements do not reflect true and reliable information on companys liquidity position due to corporate scandals and material misstatements. Accordingly, several other methods and techniques have been considered by the corporate that determines accurate level of financial distress of the companies. One such method is option value approach, which evaluates the fair value of companys shares by considering interest rate, dividend amount or rate of inflation. However, intelligent technique is mostly applied by the corporate that incorporates decision trees to determine the level of financial distress and underlying price within the organization. This approach provides accurate result for bankruptcy prediction since it involves independent variables strongl y connected with the dependent variables. The intelligent technique helps in evaluating the accurate financial level in different segments since it consists of several trials and each trial incorporates the construction of new decision tree analysis. Therefore, companies are recommended to implement other approaches other than financial statement analysis to determine the bankruptcy prediction. Reference List Abelln, J. and Mantas, C.J., 2014. Improving experimental studies about ensembles of classifiers for bankruptcy prediction and credit scoring.Expert Systems with Applications,41(8), pp.3825-3830. Altman, E.I., Iwanicz-Drozdowska, M., Laitinen, E.K. and Suvas, A., 2014. Distressed Firm and Bankruptcy Prediction in an International Context: A Review and Empirical Analysis of Altman's Z-Score Model. Delen, D., Kuzey, C. and Uyar, A., 2013. Measuring firm performance using financial ratios: A decision tree approach.Expert Systems with Applications,40(10), pp.3970-3983. Gambacorta, L. and Mistrulli, P.E., 2014. Bank heterogeneity and interest rate setting: what lessons have we learned since Lehman Brothers?.Journal of Money, Credit and Banking,46(4), pp.753-778. Iturriaga, F.J.L. and Sanz, I.P., 2015. Bankruptcy visualization and prediction using neural networks: A study of US commercial banks.Expert Systems with applications,42(6), pp.2857-2869. Kou, G., Peng, Y. and Wang, G., 2014. Evaluation of clustering algorithms for financial risk analysis using MCDM methods.Information Sciences,275, pp.1-12. Lee, S. and Choi, W.S., 2013.A multi-industry bankruptcy prediction model using back-propagation neural network and multivariate discriminant analysis.Expert Systems with Applications,40(8), pp.2941-2946. Serrano-Cinca, C. and GutiRrez-Nieto, B., 2013.Partial least square discriminant analysis for bankruptcy prediction.Decision Support Systems,54(3), pp.1245-1255. Steele, S., 2014. The collapse of Lehman brothers and derivative disputes: The relevance of bankruptcy cultures to roles for courts and attitudes of judges.Law Context: A Socio-Legal J.,30, p.51. Sun, J., Li, H., Huang, Q.H. and He, K.Y., 2014.Predicting financial distress and corporate failure: A review from the state-of-the-art definitions, modeling, sampling, and featuring approaches.Knowledge-Based Systems,57, pp.41-56. Wang, G., Ma, J. and Yang, S., 2014. An improved boosting based on feature selection for corporate bankruptcy prediction.Expert Systems with Applications,41(5), pp.2353-2361. Yu, Q., Miche, Y., Sverin, E. and Lendasse, A., 2014.Bankruptcy prediction using extreme learning machine and financial expertise.Neurocomputing,128, pp.296-302.

The United Lake of America free essay sample

Did We Make the Splash or Did Rap Make the Ripple? Though many have protested that gangs rap is to blame for its influence in the violence, female discrimination and violent behavior that take place throughout America, others argue that it is simply the other way around, implying that the artist is influenced by his own personal experience of being a part of and/or bearing witness to violence, drugs and crime that have taken place around him thus influencing him to express himself through lyric and rhyme becoming gangs rap. This leaves us to question does gangs rap music encourage violence or does lenience influence what the artist raps about? One author argues that gangs rap is at fault. In her essay Thug Culture Is a Cancer Destroying Black America, Cynthia Tucker claims that This so-called music and the lifestyle it glorifies is a malignancy destroying black Tucker makes a reference to rapper Clifford Harris Jar. We will write a custom essay sample on The United Lake of America or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page (aka T. L. ) In her essay, hall-lighten his arrests for his continued Involvement In Illegal activities after having already been given a second chance from the criminal justice system (326-327).Tucker continues to reveal that even after launching a highly successful career, Harris still continued to possess illegal firearms and was also involved in a gun battle following an argument between T. L. s entourage and unknown locals-? which ended In tragedy with the death of his best friend who was shot and killed-? making the Implication that entertainers, Like T. L. , depict their success through the glorification of violence and crime In their lives and their music, thus encouraging the idea that this kind of life style is approved (327).So, if a rappers lifestyle and experience is depicted through his music, then wouldnt that mean that it is life and his own choices that influence what he chooses to rap about? This creates the counter claim that life in America or life in general, is what influences the lyrics to an artists song. While some artists do Include references to violence and crime within their music, people do not become violent by listening to It. If people are going to have violent tendencies or commit a crime, It Is at their own will that they choose to do so.A person can choose to pursue or quit that lifestyle regardless of the music they listen to. One fact the Americans fail to acknowledge is hat violence, crime and prejudice have been in existence throughout American history for far longer than gangster rap music. With that said, how can Americans assume that gangster rap created and/or Influenced something that existed long before Its time? Before rap was even born, there were American gangsters who relied on a life of violence and crime to gain power and wealth.Acts of violence were committed along with crime and the defiance of laws, all while implying that with it comes wealth and success. So what may I ask influenced these American history gangsters to lead that lifestyle? It is quite clear that they couldnt possibly have been influenced by gangs music seeing as how rap simply did not exist then. Rap becomes a popular target of conversation and accusation whenever gang activity anything, especially violent things. Many singers, including rappers, tend to sing about things that they see or experience.Many mainstream rapp ers lived in the ghettos when they were children, and they have been affected by some form of gang activity in one way or another. Rap music gives them a chance to tell the world how they feel and what they think about these issues. There are often references to gang activity in rap, but that doesnt mean rap is the cause of violence. So who is to blame? I believe that Americans and the American Government like any other human, when at fault, sometimes disregard the morals of taking responsibility for their own actions and like mindless children, whiney fingers begin to point back and forth.Rap music tends to be one of the first to fall victim to the crowd of accusing fingers. It is easier for a parent to blame the music, than to admit to faulty parenting. It is easier for the government to blame the rappers for creating the violence, rather than acknowledging their own participation in assisting with the creation of poverty and the police brutality that sparked a rebellious violence, thus igniting the backlash of lyrical flame.One may also consider those who blame the government for a poverty that they themselv es created and could have very well prevented. The truth is hard to swallow, but in the end we Americans have only ourselves to blame. It is the American people acting on their own free will causing a ripple with every choice we make. We made a splash and rap was the ripple. We are the people and America is our lake. It is up to us to decide what kind of splash we will make. The United Lake of America free essay sample This leaves us to question does gangs rap USIA encourage violence or does violence influence what the artist raps about? One author argues that gangs rap is at fault. In her essay Thug Culture Is a Cancer Destroying Black America, Cynthia Tucker claims that This so-called music and the lifestyle it glorifies is a malignancy destroying black America(327). Tucker makes a reference to rapper Clifford Harris Jar. (aka T. L. ) in her essay, high-lighting his arrests for his continued involvement in illegal activities after having already been given a second chance from the criminal justice system (326-327).Tucker continues to reveal that even after munching a highly successful career, Harris still continued to possess illegal firearms and was also involved in a gun battle following an argument between T. L. s entourage and unknown locals? which ended in tragedy with the death of his best friend who was shot and killed? making the implication that entertainers, like T. We will write a custom essay sample on The United Lake of America or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page L. , depict their success through the glorification of violence and crime in their lives and their music, thus encouraging the idea that this kind of life style is approved (327).So, if a rappers lifestyle and experience is depicted through his music, then wouldnt that mean that it is fife and his own choices that influence what he chooses to rap about? This creates the counter claim that life in America or life in general, is what influences the lyrics to an artists song. While some artists do include references to violence and crime within their music, people do not become violent by listening to it. If people are going to have violent tendencies or commit a crime, it is at their own will that they choose to do so.A person can choose to pursue or quit that lifestyle regardless of the music they listen to. One fact the Americans fail to acknowledge is that violence, crime and rejoice have been in existence throughout American history for far longer than gangster rap music. With that said, how can Americans assume that gangster rap created and/or influenced something that existed long before its time? Before rap was even born, there were American gangsters who relied on a life of violence and crime to gain power and wealth.Acts of violence were committed along with crime and the defiance of laws, all while implying that with it comes wealth and success. So what may I ask influenced these American history gangsters to lead that lifestyle? It is quite c lear that hey couldnt possibly have been influenced by gangs music seeing as how rap simply did not exist then. Rap becomes a popular target of conversation and accusation whenever gang activity becomes violent. This is unfortunate, as rap music does not force anybody to do anything especially violent things. Many singers, including rappers, tend to sing about things that they see or experience.Many mainstream rappers lived in the ghettos when they were children, and they have been affected by some form of gang activity in one way or another. Rap music gives them a chance to tell the world how they feel and what they think about these issues. There are often references to gang activity in rap, but that doesnt mean rap is the cause of violence. So who is to blame? I believe that Americans and the American Government like any other human, when at fault, sometimes disregard the morals of taking responsibility for their own actions and like mindless children, whiney fingers begin to point back and forth. Rap music tends to be one Of the first to fall victim to the crowd of accusing fingers. It is easier for a parent to blame the music, than to admit to faulty parenting. It is easier for the government to blame the rappers for creating the violence, rather than acknowledging their win participation in assisting with the creation of poverty and the police brutality that sparked a rebellious violence, thus igniting the backlash of lyrical flame.

John Jay, Founding Father, Supreme Court Chief Justice

John Jay, Founding Father, Supreme Court Chief Justice John Jay (1745 to 1829), a native of New York State, was a patriot, statesman, diplomat, and one of America’s Founding Fathers who served the early United States government in many capacities. In 1783, Jay negotiated and signed the Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolutionary War and acknowledging the United States as an independent nation. He later served as the first chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court and as the second governor of New York State. After helping to draft the U.S. Constitution and secure its ratification in 1788, Jay served as the chief architect of U.S. foreign policy for much of the 1780s and helped shape the future of American politics during the 1790s as one of the leaders of the Federalist Party.  Ã‚   Fast Facts: John Jay Known for: American founding father, first Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, and second governor of New YorkBorn: December 23, 1745 in New York City, New YorkParents: Peter Jay and Mary (Van Cortlandt) JayDied: May 17, 1829 in Bedford, New YorkEducation: King’s College (now Columbia University)Key Accomplishments: Negotiated the Treaty of Paris and Jay’s TreatySpouse’s Name: Sarah Van Brugh LivingstonChildren’s Names: Peter Augustus, Susan, Maria, Ann, William, and Sarah LouisaFamous Quote: â€Å"It is too true, however disgraceful it may be to human nature, that nations in general will make war whenever they have a prospect of getting anything by it.† (The Federalist Papers) John Jay’s Early Years Born in New York City on December 23, 1745, John Jay hailed from a well-off merchant family of French Huguenots who had migrated to the United States seeking religious freedom. Jay’s father, Peter Jay, prospered as a commodities trader, and he and Mary Jay (nà ©e Van Cortlandt) had seven surviving children together. In March 1745, the family moved to Rye, New York, when Jay’s father retired from business to care for two of the family’s children who had been blinded by smallpox. During his childhood and teen years, Jay was alternately homeschooled by his mother or outside tutors. In 1764, he graduated from New York City’s King’s College (now Columbia University) and began his career as an attorney. After graduating from college, Jay quickly became a rising star in New York politics. In 1774, he was elected as one of the state’s delegates to the first Continental Congress that would lead to the beginning of America’s journey on the road to revolution and independence. During the Revolution   Though never a loyalist to the Crown, Jay first backed a diplomatic resolution of America’s differences with Great Britain. However, as the effects of Britain’s â€Å"Intolerable Acts† against the American colonies began to mount and as war became increasingly likely, he actively backed the Revolution. During much of the Revolutionary War, Jay served as American Foreign Minister to Spain on what proved to be a largely unsuccessful and frustrating mission seeking financial support and official recognition of American independence from the Spanish Crown. Despite his best diplomatic efforts from 1779 to 1782, Jay succeeded only in securing a $170,000 loan from Spain to the U.S. government. Spain refused to recognize America’s independence, fearing its own foreign colonies might in turn revolt. The Treaty of Paris In 1782, shortly after the British surrender at the Revolutionary War’s Battle of Yorktown effectively ended fighting in the American colonies, Jay was dispatched to Paris, France along with fellow statesmen Benjamin Franklin and John Adams to negotiate a peace treaty with Great Britain. Jay opened the negotiations by demanding the British recognize American independence. In addition, the Americans pressed for territorial control of all North American frontier lands east of the Mississippi River, except for British territories in Canada and Spanish territory in Florida. In the resulting Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, Britain acknowledged the United States as an independent nation. Lands secured through the treaty essentially doubled the new nation’s size. However, many disputed issues, such as control of regions along the Canadian border and British occupation of forts on U.S.-controlled territory in the Great Lakes area remained unresolved. These and several other post-revolution issues, specifically with France, would eventually be addressed by another treaty negotiated by Jay- now known as Jay’s Treaty- signed in Paris on November 19, 1794. The Constitution and the Federalist Papers During the Revolutionary War, America had functioned under a loosely crafted agreement among the colonial-era governments of the 13 original states called the Articles of the Confederation. After the Revolution, however, weaknesses in the Articles of the Confederation revealed the need for a more comprehensive governing document- the U.S. Constitution. While John Jay did not attend the Constitutional Convention in 1787, he strongly believed in a stronger central government than that created by the Articles of the Confederation, which granted most governmental powers to the states. During 1787 and 1788, Jay, along with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, wrote a series of essays widely published in newspapers under the collective pseudonym â€Å"Publius† advocating the ratification of the new Constitution. Later collected into a single volume and published as the Federalist Papers, the three Founding Fathers successfully argued for the creation of a strong federal government that serves the national interest while also reserving some powers to the states. Today, the Federalist Papers are often referred to and cited as an aid to interpreting the intent and application of the U.S. Constitution. First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court In September 1789, President George Washington offered to appoint Jay as Secretary of State, a position which would have continued his duties as Secretary of Foreign Affairs. When Jay declined, Washington offered him the title of Chief Justice of the United States, a new position which Washington called â€Å"the keystone of our political fabric.† Jay accepted and was unanimously confirmed by the Senate on September 26, 1789. Smaller than today’s Supreme Court, which is made up of nine justices, the chief justice, and eight associate justices, the John Jay Court had only six justices, the chief justice and five associates. All of the judges on that first Supreme Court were appointed by Washington. Jay served as chief justice until 1795, and while he personally wrote the majority decisions on only four cases during his six-year tenure on the Supreme Court, he greatly influenced the future rules and procedures for the rapidly developing U.S. federal court system.   Anti-Slavery Governor of New York Jay resigned from the Supreme Court in 1795 after being elected as the second governor of New York, an office he would hold until 1801. During his tenure as governor, Jay also ran unsuccessfully for President of the United States in 1796 and 1800. Though Jay, like many of his fellow Founding Fathers, had been a slaveholder, he championed and signed a controversial bill in 1799 outlawing slavery in New York. In 1785, Jay had helped found and served as president of the New York Manumission Society, an early abolitionist organization that arranged boycotts of merchants and newspapers involved in or supporting the slave trade, and provided free legal assistance for free black persons who had been claimed or kidnapped as slaves. Later Life and Death In 1801, Jay retired to his farm in Westchester County, New York. While he never again sought or accepted political office, he continued to fight for abolition, publicly condemning efforts in 1819 to admit Missouri to the Union as a slave state. â€Å"Slavery,† said Jay at the time, â€Å"should not to be introduced nor permitted in any of the new states.† Jay died at age 84 on May 17, 1829, in Bedford, New York and was buried in the family cemetery near Rye, New York. Today, the Jay Family Cemetery is part of the Boston Post Road Historic District, a designated National Historic Landmark and oldest maintained cemetery associated with a figure from the American Revolution. Marriage, Family, and Religion Jay married Sarah Van Brugh Livingston, the eldest daughter of the New Jersey Governor William Livingston, on April 28, 1774. The couple had six children: Peter Augustus, Susan, Maria, Ann, William, and Sarah Louisa. Sarah and the children often accompanied Jay on his diplomatic missions, including trips to Spain and Paris, where they lived with Benjamin Franklin. While still an American colonist, Jay had been a member of the Church of England but joined the Protestant Episcopal Church after the Revolution. Serving as vice president and president of the American Bible Society from 1816 to 1827, Jay believed that Christianity was an essential element of good government, once writing: â€Å"No human society has ever been able to maintain both order and freedom, both cohesiveness and liberty apart from the moral precepts of the Christian Religion. Should our Republic ever forget this fundamental precept of governance, we will then, be surely doomed.† Sources The Life of John Jay Friends of John Jay HomesteadA Brief Biography of John Jay From The Papers of John Jay, 2002. Columbia UniversityStahr, Walter. â€Å"John Jay: Founding Father.† Continuum Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-1879-1.Gellman, David N. Emancipating New York: The Politics of Slavery and Freedom, 1777–1827 LSU Press. ISBN 978-0807134658.

Siege of Fort Ticonderoga in the American Revolution

Siege of Fort Ticonderoga in the American Revolution Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Conflict Dates: The Siege of Fort Ticonderoga was fought July 2-6, 1777, during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Armies Commanders: Americans Major General Arthur St. Clairapprox. 3,000 men British Major General John Burgoyneapprox. 7,800 men Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Background: In the spring of 1777, Major General John Burgoyne devised  a plan for achieving victory over  the Americans. Concluding  that New England was the seat of the rebellion, he suggested separating  the region from the other colonies by advancing down the Hudson River corridor while a second column, led by Colonel Barry St. Leger, moved east from Lake Ontario. Rendezvousing at Albany, the combined force  would drive down the Hudson, while  General William Howes army marched north from New York. Though the plan was approved by London, Howes role was never clearly defined and his seniority prevented Burgoyne from issuing him orders. Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - British Preparations: Prior to this, British forces under Sir Guy Carleton had attempted to capture Fort Ticonderoga.   Sailing south   on Lake Champlain in the fall of 1776, Carletons fleet was delayed by an American squadron led by Brigadier General Benedict Arnold at the Battle of Valcour Island.   Though Arnold was defeated, the lateness of the season prevented the British from exploiting their victory.   Arriving in Quebec the following spring, Burgoyne began assembling his army and making preparations for moving south.   Building a  force of around 7,000 regulars and 800 Native  Americans, he gave  command of his advance force to Brigadier General Simon Fraser while leadership of the right and left wings of the army went to Major General William  Phillips and Baron Riedesel.   After reviewing his command at Fort Saint-Jean in  mid-June, Burgoyne took to the lake to begin his campaign.   Occupying Crown Point on June  30, his army was effectively screened by Frasers men and the Native Americans. Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) -American Response: Following their capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775, American forces had spent two years improving its defenses.   These included extensive  earthworks across the lake on the Mount Independence peninsula as well as redoubts and  forts on the site of the old French defenses to the  west.   Additionally,  American  forces built a fort atop nearby Mount Hope.   To the southwest, the height of Sugar Loaf (Mount Defiance), which dominated both Fort Ticonderoga and Mount  Independence, was left undefended as it was not believed that artillery could be pulled to the summit.   This point had been challenged by Arnold and Brigadier General Anthony Wayne during earlier stints in the area, but no action was taken.   Through the early part of 1777, American  leadership in the region  had been in flux as Major Generals Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates  lobbied for command of the Northern Department.   As this debate continued, oversight  at Fort Ticonderoga fell to Major General Arthur St. Clair.   A veteran of the failed invasion of Canada as well as the victories at Trenton and Princeton, St. Clair possessed around 2,500-3,000 men.   Meeting with Schuyler on June 20, the two men concluded that this force was not sufficient to hold  the Ticonderoga defenses against a determined British attack.   As such, they devised two lines of retreat with one  passing south through Skenesboro and the other heading east toward Hubbardton.  Ã‚   Departing, Schuyler told his subordinate to defend the post for as long as possible before retreating.  Ã‚     Ã‚   Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Burgoyne Arrives: Moving south on July 2, Burgoyne advanced Fraser and Phillips down the west shore of the lake while Riedesels  Hessians pressed along the east bank with the goal of attacking Mount Independence and cutting the road to Hubbardton.   Sensing danger, St. Clair  withdrew the garrison from  Mount Hope later that morning due to concerns that it  would be isolated and overwhelmed.   Later in the day, British and Native American forces began skirmishing with the Americans in the old  French lines.   In the course of the fighting, a British soldier was captured and St. Clair was  able to learn more about the size of Burgoynes army.   Recognizing the importance of Sugar Loaf,  British engineers ascended the  heights and covertly began clearing space for an artillery emplacement (Map). Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - A Difficult Choice: The next morning, Frasers men occupied  Mount Hope while other British forces began dragging guns up Sugar Loaf.  Ã‚  Continuing to work in secret, Burgoyne  hoped to have Riedesel in place on the  Hubbardton Road before the Americans discovered the guns on the heights.   On the evening of July 4, Native American campfires on Sugar Loaf alerted St. Clair to the impending  danger.   With the American defenses exposed to the British guns, he called  a council of war  early on July 5.   Meeting with his commanders, St. Clair made the decision to  abandon the fort and retreat after dark.   As Fort Ticonderoga was a politically important post, he recognized that the withdrawal would badly  damage his reputation but he felt that saving his army  took precedence.   Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - St. ClairRetreats: Gathering a fleet of over 200 boats, St. Clair directed that as many supplies as possible be embarked and sent south to Skenesboro.  Ã‚  While the boats  were escorted south by Colonel Pierse Longs New Hampshire Regiment, St. Clair and the remaining men crossed to Mount Independence before marching down the Hubbardton Road.   Probing the American lines the next morning, Burgoynes troops found them deserted.   Pushing forward, they occupied Fort Ticonderoga and the surrounding works without firing a shot.   Shortly thereafter, Fraser received permission to mount a pursuit of the retreating Americans with Riedesel in support. Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Aftermath: In the Siege of Fort Ticonderoga, St. Clair suffered seven killed and eleven wounded while Burgoyne incurred five killed.   Frasers pursuit resulted in the Battle of Hubbardton on July 7.   Though a British victory, it saw the American rearguard inflict higher casualties as well as accomplish  their mission of covering St. Clairs retreat.   Turning  west, St. Clairs men later rendezvoused with Schuyler at Fort Edward.   As  he predicted,  St. Clairs abandonment of Fort Ticonderoga led to his removal  from  command and contributed to Schuyler being replaced by Gates.  Ã‚  Firmly arguing that his actions had been honorable and were justified, he demanded a court of inquiry which was held in September 1778.   Though exonerated, St. Clair did not receive another field command during the war.   Advancing south after his success at Fort Ticonderoga, Burgoyne was hampered by  difficult  terrain and American efforts to slow his march.   As the campaign season wore on, his plans began  to unravel following a defeat at Bennington and St. Legers failure at the Siege of Fort  Stanwix.   Increasingly  isolated, Burgoyne was forced to surrender his army after being beaten at the Battle of Saratoga that fall.   The American victory proved a turning point in the war and led to the Treaty of Alliance with France. Selected Sources: British Battles: Siege of Fort TiconderogaFort TiconderogaHistory Central: Battle of Fort Ticonderoga

The meaning of Thanksgiving and the separation of church and state Essay

The meaning of Thanksgiving and the separation of church and state - Essay Example .† In Mourt’s Relation, Edward Winslow writes, â€Å"And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty (Winslow).† The first official proclamation of Thanksgiving was by George Washington in 1789 and it contained an overtly religious message. Washington said that Congress implored him, "to recommend to the People of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many signal favors of Almighty God especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a form of government for their safety and happiness.† However, Thomas Jefferson refused to deliver a Thanksgiving proclamation and one of the primary reasons was because he believed it violated the policy of separation of church and state. As is evidenced by the above referenced material the majority understanding of Thanksgiving was clearly as a religious holiday and Jefferson’s rejection of it on the national scale would be similar to a contemporary President embracing Easter for the expressed celebration of Jesus resurrection. It’s worth noting that Jefferson did issue a Thanksgiving proclamation as a governor, a fact some historians attribute to Jefferson’s understanding of the constitution as restricting matters of religion in the Executive Branch, but leaving them open for interpretation on the state level. Yet this didn’t step other Presidents from drawing connections between religion and Thanksgiving well into the 20th