John Jay, Founding Father, Supreme Court Chief Justice

John Jay, Founding Father, Supreme Court Chief Justice John Jay (1745 to 1829), a native of New York State, was a patriot, statesman, diplomat, and one of America’s Founding Fathers who served the early United States government in many capacities. In 1783, Jay negotiated and signed the Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolutionary War and acknowledging the United States as an independent nation. He later served as the first chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court and as the second governor of New York State. After helping to draft the U.S. Constitution and secure its ratification in 1788, Jay served as the chief architect of U.S. foreign policy for much of the 1780s and helped shape the future of American politics during the 1790s as one of the leaders of the Federalist Party.  Ã‚   Fast Facts: John Jay Known for: American founding father, first Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, and second governor of New YorkBorn: December 23, 1745 in New York City, New YorkParents: Peter Jay and Mary (Van Cortlandt) JayDied: May 17, 1829 in Bedford, New YorkEducation: King’s College (now Columbia University)Key Accomplishments: Negotiated the Treaty of Paris and Jay’s TreatySpouse’s Name: Sarah Van Brugh LivingstonChildren’s Names: Peter Augustus, Susan, Maria, Ann, William, and Sarah LouisaFamous Quote: â€Å"It is too true, however disgraceful it may be to human nature, that nations in general will make war whenever they have a prospect of getting anything by it.† (The Federalist Papers) John Jay’s Early Years Born in New York City on December 23, 1745, John Jay hailed from a well-off merchant family of French Huguenots who had migrated to the United States seeking religious freedom. Jay’s father, Peter Jay, prospered as a commodities trader, and he and Mary Jay (nà ©e Van Cortlandt) had seven surviving children together. In March 1745, the family moved to Rye, New York, when Jay’s father retired from business to care for two of the family’s children who had been blinded by smallpox. During his childhood and teen years, Jay was alternately homeschooled by his mother or outside tutors. In 1764, he graduated from New York City’s King’s College (now Columbia University) and began his career as an attorney. After graduating from college, Jay quickly became a rising star in New York politics. In 1774, he was elected as one of the state’s delegates to the first Continental Congress that would lead to the beginning of America’s journey on the road to revolution and independence. During the Revolution   Though never a loyalist to the Crown, Jay first backed a diplomatic resolution of America’s differences with Great Britain. However, as the effects of Britain’s â€Å"Intolerable Acts† against the American colonies began to mount and as war became increasingly likely, he actively backed the Revolution. During much of the Revolutionary War, Jay served as American Foreign Minister to Spain on what proved to be a largely unsuccessful and frustrating mission seeking financial support and official recognition of American independence from the Spanish Crown. Despite his best diplomatic efforts from 1779 to 1782, Jay succeeded only in securing a $170,000 loan from Spain to the U.S. government. Spain refused to recognize America’s independence, fearing its own foreign colonies might in turn revolt. The Treaty of Paris In 1782, shortly after the British surrender at the Revolutionary War’s Battle of Yorktown effectively ended fighting in the American colonies, Jay was dispatched to Paris, France along with fellow statesmen Benjamin Franklin and John Adams to negotiate a peace treaty with Great Britain. Jay opened the negotiations by demanding the British recognize American independence. In addition, the Americans pressed for territorial control of all North American frontier lands east of the Mississippi River, except for British territories in Canada and Spanish territory in Florida. In the resulting Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, Britain acknowledged the United States as an independent nation. Lands secured through the treaty essentially doubled the new nation’s size. However, many disputed issues, such as control of regions along the Canadian border and British occupation of forts on U.S.-controlled territory in the Great Lakes area remained unresolved. These and several other post-revolution issues, specifically with France, would eventually be addressed by another treaty negotiated by Jay- now known as Jay’s Treaty- signed in Paris on November 19, 1794. The Constitution and the Federalist Papers During the Revolutionary War, America had functioned under a loosely crafted agreement among the colonial-era governments of the 13 original states called the Articles of the Confederation. After the Revolution, however, weaknesses in the Articles of the Confederation revealed the need for a more comprehensive governing document- the U.S. Constitution. While John Jay did not attend the Constitutional Convention in 1787, he strongly believed in a stronger central government than that created by the Articles of the Confederation, which granted most governmental powers to the states. During 1787 and 1788, Jay, along with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, wrote a series of essays widely published in newspapers under the collective pseudonym â€Å"Publius† advocating the ratification of the new Constitution. Later collected into a single volume and published as the Federalist Papers, the three Founding Fathers successfully argued for the creation of a strong federal government that serves the national interest while also reserving some powers to the states. Today, the Federalist Papers are often referred to and cited as an aid to interpreting the intent and application of the U.S. Constitution. First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court In September 1789, President George Washington offered to appoint Jay as Secretary of State, a position which would have continued his duties as Secretary of Foreign Affairs. When Jay declined, Washington offered him the title of Chief Justice of the United States, a new position which Washington called â€Å"the keystone of our political fabric.† Jay accepted and was unanimously confirmed by the Senate on September 26, 1789. Smaller than today’s Supreme Court, which is made up of nine justices, the chief justice, and eight associate justices, the John Jay Court had only six justices, the chief justice and five associates. All of the judges on that first Supreme Court were appointed by Washington. Jay served as chief justice until 1795, and while he personally wrote the majority decisions on only four cases during his six-year tenure on the Supreme Court, he greatly influenced the future rules and procedures for the rapidly developing U.S. federal court system.   Anti-Slavery Governor of New York Jay resigned from the Supreme Court in 1795 after being elected as the second governor of New York, an office he would hold until 1801. During his tenure as governor, Jay also ran unsuccessfully for President of the United States in 1796 and 1800. Though Jay, like many of his fellow Founding Fathers, had been a slaveholder, he championed and signed a controversial bill in 1799 outlawing slavery in New York. In 1785, Jay had helped found and served as president of the New York Manumission Society, an early abolitionist organization that arranged boycotts of merchants and newspapers involved in or supporting the slave trade, and provided free legal assistance for free black persons who had been claimed or kidnapped as slaves. Later Life and Death In 1801, Jay retired to his farm in Westchester County, New York. While he never again sought or accepted political office, he continued to fight for abolition, publicly condemning efforts in 1819 to admit Missouri to the Union as a slave state. â€Å"Slavery,† said Jay at the time, â€Å"should not to be introduced nor permitted in any of the new states.† Jay died at age 84 on May 17, 1829, in Bedford, New York and was buried in the family cemetery near Rye, New York. Today, the Jay Family Cemetery is part of the Boston Post Road Historic District, a designated National Historic Landmark and oldest maintained cemetery associated with a figure from the American Revolution. Marriage, Family, and Religion Jay married Sarah Van Brugh Livingston, the eldest daughter of the New Jersey Governor William Livingston, on April 28, 1774. The couple had six children: Peter Augustus, Susan, Maria, Ann, William, and Sarah Louisa. Sarah and the children often accompanied Jay on his diplomatic missions, including trips to Spain and Paris, where they lived with Benjamin Franklin. While still an American colonist, Jay had been a member of the Church of England but joined the Protestant Episcopal Church after the Revolution. Serving as vice president and president of the American Bible Society from 1816 to 1827, Jay believed that Christianity was an essential element of good government, once writing: â€Å"No human society has ever been able to maintain both order and freedom, both cohesiveness and liberty apart from the moral precepts of the Christian Religion. Should our Republic ever forget this fundamental precept of governance, we will then, be surely doomed.† Sources The Life of John Jay Friends of John Jay HomesteadA Brief Biography of John Jay From The Papers of John Jay, 2002. Columbia UniversityStahr, Walter. â€Å"John Jay: Founding Father.† Continuum Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-1879-1.Gellman, David N. Emancipating New York: The Politics of Slavery and Freedom, 1777–1827 LSU Press. ISBN 978-0807134658.

Siege of Fort Ticonderoga in the American Revolution

Siege of Fort Ticonderoga in the American Revolution Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Conflict Dates: The Siege of Fort Ticonderoga was fought July 2-6, 1777, during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Armies Commanders: Americans Major General Arthur St. Clairapprox. 3,000 men British Major General John Burgoyneapprox. 7,800 men Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Background: In the spring of 1777, Major General John Burgoyne devised  a plan for achieving victory over  the Americans. Concluding  that New England was the seat of the rebellion, he suggested separating  the region from the other colonies by advancing down the Hudson River corridor while a second column, led by Colonel Barry St. Leger, moved east from Lake Ontario. Rendezvousing at Albany, the combined force  would drive down the Hudson, while  General William Howes army marched north from New York. Though the plan was approved by London, Howes role was never clearly defined and his seniority prevented Burgoyne from issuing him orders. Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - British Preparations: Prior to this, British forces under Sir Guy Carleton had attempted to capture Fort Ticonderoga.   Sailing south   on Lake Champlain in the fall of 1776, Carletons fleet was delayed by an American squadron led by Brigadier General Benedict Arnold at the Battle of Valcour Island.   Though Arnold was defeated, the lateness of the season prevented the British from exploiting their victory.   Arriving in Quebec the following spring, Burgoyne began assembling his army and making preparations for moving south.   Building a  force of around 7,000 regulars and 800 Native  Americans, he gave  command of his advance force to Brigadier General Simon Fraser while leadership of the right and left wings of the army went to Major General William  Phillips and Baron Riedesel.   After reviewing his command at Fort Saint-Jean in  mid-June, Burgoyne took to the lake to begin his campaign.   Occupying Crown Point on June  30, his army was effectively screened by Frasers men and the Native Americans. Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) -American Response: Following their capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775, American forces had spent two years improving its defenses.   These included extensive  earthworks across the lake on the Mount Independence peninsula as well as redoubts and  forts on the site of the old French defenses to the  west.   Additionally,  American  forces built a fort atop nearby Mount Hope.   To the southwest, the height of Sugar Loaf (Mount Defiance), which dominated both Fort Ticonderoga and Mount  Independence, was left undefended as it was not believed that artillery could be pulled to the summit.   This point had been challenged by Arnold and Brigadier General Anthony Wayne during earlier stints in the area, but no action was taken.   Through the early part of 1777, American  leadership in the region  had been in flux as Major Generals Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates  lobbied for command of the Northern Department.   As this debate continued, oversight  at Fort Ticonderoga fell to Major General Arthur St. Clair.   A veteran of the failed invasion of Canada as well as the victories at Trenton and Princeton, St. Clair possessed around 2,500-3,000 men.   Meeting with Schuyler on June 20, the two men concluded that this force was not sufficient to hold  the Ticonderoga defenses against a determined British attack.   As such, they devised two lines of retreat with one  passing south through Skenesboro and the other heading east toward Hubbardton.  Ã‚   Departing, Schuyler told his subordinate to defend the post for as long as possible before retreating.  Ã‚     Ã‚   Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Burgoyne Arrives: Moving south on July 2, Burgoyne advanced Fraser and Phillips down the west shore of the lake while Riedesels  Hessians pressed along the east bank with the goal of attacking Mount Independence and cutting the road to Hubbardton.   Sensing danger, St. Clair  withdrew the garrison from  Mount Hope later that morning due to concerns that it  would be isolated and overwhelmed.   Later in the day, British and Native American forces began skirmishing with the Americans in the old  French lines.   In the course of the fighting, a British soldier was captured and St. Clair was  able to learn more about the size of Burgoynes army.   Recognizing the importance of Sugar Loaf,  British engineers ascended the  heights and covertly began clearing space for an artillery emplacement (Map). Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - A Difficult Choice: The next morning, Frasers men occupied  Mount Hope while other British forces began dragging guns up Sugar Loaf.  Ã‚  Continuing to work in secret, Burgoyne  hoped to have Riedesel in place on the  Hubbardton Road before the Americans discovered the guns on the heights.   On the evening of July 4, Native American campfires on Sugar Loaf alerted St. Clair to the impending  danger.   With the American defenses exposed to the British guns, he called  a council of war  early on July 5.   Meeting with his commanders, St. Clair made the decision to  abandon the fort and retreat after dark.   As Fort Ticonderoga was a politically important post, he recognized that the withdrawal would badly  damage his reputation but he felt that saving his army  took precedence.   Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - St. ClairRetreats: Gathering a fleet of over 200 boats, St. Clair directed that as many supplies as possible be embarked and sent south to Skenesboro.  Ã‚  While the boats  were escorted south by Colonel Pierse Longs New Hampshire Regiment, St. Clair and the remaining men crossed to Mount Independence before marching down the Hubbardton Road.   Probing the American lines the next morning, Burgoynes troops found them deserted.   Pushing forward, they occupied Fort Ticonderoga and the surrounding works without firing a shot.   Shortly thereafter, Fraser received permission to mount a pursuit of the retreating Americans with Riedesel in support. Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Aftermath: In the Siege of Fort Ticonderoga, St. Clair suffered seven killed and eleven wounded while Burgoyne incurred five killed.   Frasers pursuit resulted in the Battle of Hubbardton on July 7.   Though a British victory, it saw the American rearguard inflict higher casualties as well as accomplish  their mission of covering St. Clairs retreat.   Turning  west, St. Clairs men later rendezvoused with Schuyler at Fort Edward.   As  he predicted,  St. Clairs abandonment of Fort Ticonderoga led to his removal  from  command and contributed to Schuyler being replaced by Gates.  Ã‚  Firmly arguing that his actions had been honorable and were justified, he demanded a court of inquiry which was held in September 1778.   Though exonerated, St. Clair did not receive another field command during the war.   Advancing south after his success at Fort Ticonderoga, Burgoyne was hampered by  difficult  terrain and American efforts to slow his march.   As the campaign season wore on, his plans began  to unravel following a defeat at Bennington and St. Legers failure at the Siege of Fort  Stanwix.   Increasingly  isolated, Burgoyne was forced to surrender his army after being beaten at the Battle of Saratoga that fall.   The American victory proved a turning point in the war and led to the Treaty of Alliance with France. Selected Sources: British Battles: Siege of Fort TiconderogaFort TiconderogaHistory Central: Battle of Fort Ticonderoga

The meaning of Thanksgiving and the separation of church and state Essay

The meaning of Thanksgiving and the separation of church and state - Essay Example .† In Mourt’s Relation, Edward Winslow writes, â€Å"And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty (Winslow).† The first official proclamation of Thanksgiving was by George Washington in 1789 and it contained an overtly religious message. Washington said that Congress implored him, "to recommend to the People of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many signal favors of Almighty God especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a form of government for their safety and happiness.† However, Thomas Jefferson refused to deliver a Thanksgiving proclamation and one of the primary reasons was because he believed it violated the policy of separation of church and state. As is evidenced by the above referenced material the majority understanding of Thanksgiving was clearly as a religious holiday and Jefferson’s rejection of it on the national scale would be similar to a contemporary President embracing Easter for the expressed celebration of Jesus resurrection. It’s worth noting that Jefferson did issue a Thanksgiving proclamation as a governor, a fact some historians attribute to Jefferson’s understanding of the constitution as restricting matters of religion in the Executive Branch, but leaving them open for interpretation on the state level. Yet this didn’t step other Presidents from drawing connections between religion and Thanksgiving well into the 20th